Determination Of Vapor Pressure Level | Types |

Determination Of Vapor Pressure.

Various types of methods for the determination of vapor pressure are

1. The Static Method.
2. The Dynamic Method.

Static Method.

In the static method, the liquid nether examine is evaporated inward Vaccum above the mercury column of a barometer, together with the decrease inward the pinnacle of the mercury the column is noted.

Dynamic Method.

In the dynamic method, the liquid is boiled nether a definite pressure level (usually atmospheric pressure) therefore that the vapors together with the liquid are inward equilibrium nation due to the external pressure.

The Barometric Method.

It is a typical static method. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 long barometric subway scheme filled amongst mercury is inverted inward a dish containing mercury. The mercury falls into the subway scheme until the pressure level due to the column of mercury is equal to the atmospheric pressure level together with at that topographic point is a vacuum produced at the overstep of the tube. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 modest quantity of the pure liquid is together with then introduced into the vacuum amongst the aid of a bent dropper every bit shown inward the figure. The liquid vaporizes together with due to its pressure, the mercury column is pressed down. This low measured inward millimeters or centimeters of mercury represents the vapor pressure level p of the liquid at the temperature of the experiment.

Isoteniscope Method.

This method is due to Smith together with Menzies. The isoteniscope consists of a bulb Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 of close 2 cm diameter which is fused to a bulbed U-tube B amongst limbs close iii - four cm long. The bulb is a footling to a greater extent than than half-filled amongst the liquid nether exam together with iii to 4 cm³. of the liquid are every bit good placed inward the U-tube B. The isoteniscope is together with then attached to the repose of the apparatus every bit shown inward the figure together with placed inward a constant temperature bath.

Fig. Isoteniscope Method for Measuring Vapor Pressure.

On evacuation, the liquid inward the bulb Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 begins to boil together with expels all the air. The pressure level is together with then cautiously restored past times admitting air therefore that the score of the liquid inward the 2 limbs of the U-tube becomes equal.

Under these weather the pressure level read on the barometric leg when subtracted from the atmospheric pressure level gives the vapor pressure level of the liquid at the temperature of the experiment because the pressure level of the vapor inward the bulb Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 is balanced past times the pressure level of air introduced to convey the liquid inward the 2 limbs of the U-tube at the same level.

Intermolecular Forces Definition | Types |

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES.

Have y'all always wondered why some compounds boil at relatively depression temperatures land some boil at high temperatures? Why some melt at depression temperatures land some melt at high temperatures? Why some be every bit a gas at room temperature land some every bit liquid or solid? To hold out able to response those questions nosotros must sympathize the concept of intermolecular forces.

Intermolecular forces are forces that bind molecules together inward a compound. Different intermolecular forces vary inward their strength but they are mostly weaker than intramolecular chemic bonds (ionic, covalent or metallic element bonds). Thus, when a chemical compound changes from i stage to another, its molecules stay intent. Although intermolecular forces are much weaker than the major chemic bonds, their beingness cannot hold out overlooked because they are related largely to the physical properties of a compound, such every bit its boiling point, melting point, e.t.c. For a liquid to boil or a venture to melt, it must absorb liberate energy that tin overcome its intermolecular forces. Thus, a liquid or venture having stronger intermolecular forces tends to boil or melt at high temperatures. Also, the divergence inward the phases of affair is how tightly its molecules are held together which is a component division of its intermolecular forces.

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES.

There are iii types of intermolecular forces, all these types of intermolecular forces are electrostatic in nature i.e involving attraction betwixt positive in addition to negative species.

Dipole-dipole force.

When atoms of unlike electronegativity bond together to shape a molecule, the to a greater extent than electronegative one tends to describe the electrons inward the bonds towards itself, making it instruct a partial negative charge and the other to instruct a partial positive charge. Thus, creating a permanent dipole moment, such molecules are arranged inward such a agency that the partially positive cease of i molecule is attracted to the partially negative cease of the neighboring molecule. This type of attraction is called dipole-dipole attraction. An example of this forcefulness tin hold out observed betwixt the molecules of HCl where the partially negative Cl atom of i molecule is electrostatically attracted to the partially H of some other molecule.

Dispersion Force.

If intermolecular forces are said to hold out electrostatic inward nature, does that infer that neutral in addition to nonpolar compounds practice non convey intermolecular forces? If yes, how in addition to then practice nosotros concern human relationship for the liquefaction of nonpolar gases?

In 1930, Fritz London observed that the displace of electrons inward an atom or molecule tin practice a momentary dipole moment. Since electrons to a greater extent than or less the nucleus are non static but are inward continuous motion, in that location comes a fourth dimension when all the elections are clouded on i side of the nucleus. At that instant, the atom or molecule has an instantaneous dipole moment, this momentary dipole moment induces an instantaneous dipole instant on the neighboring molecule causing them to hold out attracted to each other, this type of attraction is known every bit dispersion forces.

Dispersion forces be betwixt nonpolar hydrocarbons.

Hydrogen bonding.

Hydrogen bonding is the attraction betwixt the partially positive hydrogen-bonded to a strongly electronegative atom similar N, O or F in addition to the lonely twain of electrons on its neighboring electronegative atom. The presence of the hydrogen bonding inward NH3 H2O in addition to HF is the argue for their odd high boiling points compare to other covalent hydrides.

A hydrogen bond is sub-divided into

Intermolecular hydrogen bond i.e betwixt ii molecules e.g HF, H2O e.t.c

Intramolecular hydrogen bond i.e inside the same molecule e.g o-nitrophenol.

Author. Akowe Nasir Aija

Colloids Properties | Of Import Properties Of Colloids |

Colloids Properties.

Some important properties of colloidal solutions are listed below.

Heterogeneity.

A colloidal solution is heterogeneous though solute particles are invisible nether an ordinary microscope. They tin range the sack live on detected amongst the tending of an ultramicroscope.

Osmotic Pressure.

The osmotic pressure level of a colloidal solution is really pocket-sized because of the number of colloidal particles are pocket-sized every bit compared to a solution containing the same total of solute particles inwards a given book of solvent.

Filterability.

The colloidal particles tin range the sack overstep through ordinary filters. However, yesteryear the move of ultrafilters, it becomes possible, to filter colloidal particles.

Tyndall Effect.

"When a potent beam of lite is concentrated on a colloidal solution, the path of the beam is illuminated yesteryear colloidal particles. It is called the Tyndall effect." The colloidal particles absorb lite in addition to so scatter lite of shorted waves. Because of this reason, the path of the beam is illuminated yesteryear blueish lite in addition to becomes visible when observed from the other side. "The green of lite made visible throughout the colloid is called the Tyndallbeam or Faraday Tyndall-cone".

Colour.

The colloidal solution is commonly coloured due to the scattering number of particles. The color depends upon the size in addition to the nature of particles, e.g.

Brownian Movement.

"The suspended particles inwards a colloidal solution are inwards a constant rapid zig-zag motion. It is called Brownian movement".

It is because of unequal bombordment yesteryear the solvent molecules or the molecules of the dispersion medium, which has comparatively smaller sizes.

Cataphoresis.

Since colloidal particles acquit a charge, they displace towards respective electrodes when placed inwards an electrical field. "The migration of colloidal particles nether the influence of the electrical champaign is called cataphoresis". It is employed to decide the sign of the electrical accuse on the colloidal particles.

Electro Osmosis.

If the colloidal particles inwards sol are maintained inwards a stationary state, the dispersion medium

moves. "The motion of dispersion medium nether the influence of the electrical champaign is

known every bit electro-osmosis". This phenomenon has been used dewatering peat, moist clay,

drying dyes in addition to pastes.

Precipitation or Coagulation.

The atmospheric precipitation or coagulation of a colloidal solution tin range the sack live on brought nearly yesteryear the add-on of a pocket-sized total of an electrolyte, e.g., a few drops of barium chloride to arsenious sulphide precipitate it. This is because of the argue that ions of electrolyte are absorbed yesteryear the colloidal particles. These shape bigger aggregates in addition to settle downwards every bit precipitate. In our example, sol particle beingness negatively charged, are neutralized by Ba⁺² ions in addition to shape a precipitate.

Hardy-Schulze law.

It is concerned amongst the mightiness of an ion to coagulate a sol, It tin range the sack live on stated as. "The higher the valency of the active ion, the greater is its precipitating action", e. g. the precipitating activity of cations Na⁺, Mg², and Al³⁺ is of the Order.

Na⁺ < Mg²⁺ < Al³⁺

Protection.

"The procedure yesteryear which the sole particles are protected from atmospheric precipitation yesteryear electrolytes due to the previous add-on of about hydrophilic colloid is called protection" The colloid added for protection is called a protective colloid. e.g., if a piffling gelatin is added to aureate sol, it is non coagulated yesteryear the add-on of sodium chloride. In this case, gelatin is a protective colloid.

The protective colloid particles shape a protective layer nearly sol particles in addition to hence forestall their precipitation.

Adsorption.

The particles at the surface of a company or liquid acquit repose valencies. In gild to satisfy it, they attract other particles in addition to retain at their surfaces. "This physical contact at the surface, betwixt ii particles, is called adsorption", The large surface offered yesteryear colloidal particles in addition to their costless valencies are responsible for adsorption yesteryear colloids.

State Component Subdivision | Dry Soil & Explanation, Dry Soil Variable |

State Function in addition to State Variable.

State.

"The status of a organisation is called the state of a system". H5N1 thermodynamic terra firma is a macroscopic status of a organisation for which its properties are uniquely determined in addition to are independent of time.

Explanation.

We perform experiments on a organisation to stair out its properties, which completely define the terra firma of a organisation at a item moment. For example, composition, pressure, volume, temperature, in addition to mass. H5N1 organisation is inwards a definite state when each of its properties has a definite value. This defines the organisation completely. In thermodynamics, initial in addition to in conclusion states in addition to noted, to decide the modify inwards a property.

State Function in addition to State Variable.

"A belongings that depends upon the state of a organisation is called state function". It is independent of the path past times which the terra firma has reached. For example, enthalpy, costless energy, entropy, internal energy, volume, temperature, in addition to pressure. Change inwards terra firma role is too a state function. For example, internal unloose energy east of a organisation is a terra firma function. The modify inwards east depends on the initial in addition to in conclusion states of the system. Thus

ΔE  = Efinal   -  Einitial

and ΔE is too a terra firma role because it is non a path-dependent property.

Modular Representation of a State Function.

Consider that you lot desire to accomplish the transcend of the mountain. The 2 paths are : (a) which is brusk but

steep in addition to the path (b) which is longer in addition to to a greater extent than gradual. The fourth dimension taken to climb is dissimilar but the summit to live on covered is same inwards this adventure. the summit corresponds to a state function.

Characteristics of a State Function.

1. The modify inwards terra firma role depends on the initial in addition to in conclusion states of the system. It is independent of the path of reaction.
2. The modify inwards the state function is too a terra firma function.
3. State functions for a organisation are non mostly independent of each other.
4. For whatever item terra firma of a system, terra firma role has a unique value. For example, at a item state, a organisation has a unique value of internal unloose energy E.
5. In cyclic process, modify inwards terra firma role is zero.

Explain Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

Thermodynamic Temperature Scale.

Temperature scales to a greater extent than oft than non depend on the thermal expansion of a gas or mercury. Since the coefficients of expansion are non constant over a make of temperature, the scales bear uncertainty. In fellowship to overcome this difficulty, Lord Kelvin suggested the thermodynamic temperature scale which is based upon the efficiency of a reversible machine.

Suppose at that spot are 2 constant temperature oestrus reservoirs as well as a reversible car operates betwixt them, 1 acting every bit source as well as the other every bit the sink. The temperature of each reservoir on the novel scale is as well as then defined every bit " proportional to the quantity of oestrus transferred to or from it inward the reversible cycle". If Q2 is the oestrus transfer inward the at a higher temperature as well as '-Q1' that at a lower temperature; as well as then the respective temperature on the thermodynamic scale is θ2 and θ1, given by

In this way, the ration of the 2 temperature is defined inward a agency independent of nature of whatever detail thermodynamic substance.

 The seat of the aught on the Kelvin scale may travel derived every bit :

Invert equation (i) as well as subtract the number from unity. Thus

and putting θ1 = 0, i.e., aught of the scale, nosotros get

Therefore, aught of the Kelvin scale is the temperature of the sink for a reversible car amongst an efficiency of unity, that is, the car capable of converting oestrus completely into work. It is possible exclusively at the absolute aught on the ideal scale of temperature, it follows that the Kelvin scale as well as the gas scale, are actually the same. Because of this identity, temperatures on the absolute scale, inward which the melting betoken of H2O ice is taken every bit 273.16°, C are referred to every bit degrees Kelvin as well as represented past times K.

Spontaneous As Well As Nonspontaneous Procedure Amongst Examples

Spontaneous in addition to Nonspontaneous Process.

Spontaneous Process. "The procedure takin house without external action/aid is called a spontaneous process". H5N1 spontaneous alter continues until a organization reaches a nation of equilibrium in addition to no farther alter occurs.

Examples:

1. The menses of H2O from a higher score to a lower level.
2. The menses of accuse betwixt two-point due to the potential difference.
3. The expansion of gas inward a vacuum.

Spontaneous processes are non thermodynamically reversible without external agency.

Nonspontaneous Process.

Natural process, which tin dismiss hap is called a spontaneous process. The contrary procedure tin dismiss non hap are called nonspontaneous processes. Thus, nonspontaneous processes are the processes which hap yesteryear the intervention of external agency.

Explanation. Both the spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes are possible but the solely spontaneous procedure occurs naturally. Nonspontaneous processes involve the organization to hold upward acted upon inward merely about way. For example, sodium metallic tin dismiss react alongside chlorine nether normal weather condition (natural status i.e, 25 C in addition to i atm.) to cast NaCl,

Thermodynamically speaking nosotros tin dismiss strength the minute reaction to hap yesteryear using unloose energy properly, e.g., if NaCl is melted in addition to electricity is passed, Na(s)  and Cl2(g) are produced.

The measure of Spontaneity:

In the search for a measure for a spontaneous process, the next ii factors were recognized.

1. Change inward energy.
2. Change inward total of disorders.

Explanation: In mechanical systems, nosotros uncovering a decrease inward potential unloose energy inward a spontaneous change, e.g., ball rolls downhill in addition to H2O flows to a lower level. For a chemic system, a spontaneous alter occurs inward the direction inward which the enthalpy of the organization decreases, i.e., an exothermic reaction is spontaneous.

However, at that topographic point is merely about endothermic reaction which is too spontaneous, e.g., melting of H2O ice at room temperature, the evaporation of liquid ether from an opened upward beaker in addition to solution formation of NH4NO3 inward water. The spontaneous nature of endothermic processes tin dismiss hold upward explained alongside the assist of entropy, i.e., a mensurate of disorders. In melting, evaporation, in addition to dissolution of NH4NO3, the entropy increases in addition to makes these processes spontaneous, i.e., possible to hap naturally. In price of unloose energy changes in addition to entropy changes, spontaneous processes tin dismiss hold upward defined as:

1. The procedure inward which the unloose energy content of the organization decreases, tend to hap spontaneously.
2. The procedure inward which the disorder of the organization increases, tend to hap spontaneously.

Optical Activeness | Importance Together With Standard Of Optical Activeness |

Optical Activity.

Some liquids together with solutions, when placed inward the path pf plane-polarized light, rotate it through a for certain angle."The belongings of rotating plane-polarized lite to the left or correct is called optical activity together with the meat is called optical activity".Those rotating inward a clockwise management are called dextrorotatory together with those inward anti-clock management are called laevorotatory.

Measurement of Optical Activity.

Optical activity is measured inward price of specific rotation. | α | tλ, at a item temperature t amongst the assistance of the lite of wavelength λ,

Where,   

g = no. of grams of solute inward 100 ml solution
d = density of liquid

l  = length of the column of liquid through which lite passes.

The angle of rotation, α is measured amongst the assistance of polarimeter every bit shown inward the figure.

1. H5N1 drinking glass subway pT containing optically active liquid or solution is placed inward the polarimeter.
2. H5N1 beam of monochromatic lite passes through it later existence polarized past times polarizer P.
3. The sample rotates the airplane of polarized lite through a for certain angle.
4. The analyzer H5N1 is rotated through the same angle to instruct a nighttime plain of persuasion again.
5. This angle together with its management are noted amongst the assistance of graduated disc.
6. The meat is laevorotatory if the analyzer is rotated inward the anticlockwise direction. It is Dextrorotatory if the analyzer is rotated inward the clockwise direction.

Importance In Chemistry.

1. Optical activity depends upon the organization of atoms inward the molecule. Thus it is a constitutive property. It is employed inward ascertaining the construction of compounds.
2. Only those organic compounds containing asymmetric carbon atom are optically active. H5N1 carbon atom amongst 4 unlike groups of atoms is called  asymmetric carbon, e.g., lactic acid together with maleic acid are optically active together with convey been assigned the formulas:
   

Nuclear Fission | Fusion Reaction, Atomic Bomb, Hydrogen Bomb |

Nuclear Fission.

"This is the breaking downward of heavy nuclei into fragments, amongst a moving neutron". Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 fission reaction requires neutron to initiate.

Explanation. 

very heavy nuclei conduct maintain lower binding unloosen energy than nuclei amongst intermediate-mass, about lx a.m.u. The heavy nuclei are thence less stable. If a heavy nucleus is bombarded amongst high unloosen energy neutrons, the target nucleus splits into ii smaller nuclei, known a fission fragments. This is called fission. It is normally accompanied yesteryear the emission of the neutron. The designing of fission is variable fifty-fifty for the same nucleus e.g.,

Each fission results inwards a loss inwards a majority of 0.22 majority units. The unloosen energy released due to this loss of majority is unopen to 200 MeV per fission. Since ii or to a greater extent than neutrons are emitted from every unmarried uranium - 235, a Nuclear Chain reaction is initiated. The consummate chain reaction in addition to loss of unloosen energy accept house inwards less than 1 x 10⁶ seconds.

However, this does non come about for pocket-sized amounts of the majority of fissionable material. The minimum majority required for fission to come about is called critical mass.

Fusion Reaction.

"This is the fusing together of nuclei of low-cal atoms to cast heavy nuclei". e.g.,

This procedure releases an enormous amount of energy. Since nuclei repel each other, unloosen energy is required to commencement these reactions. This unloosen energy is taken from a fission reaction.

Explanation.

The low-cal nuclei as 1H¹, 1H² are less stable. The fusion of ii low-cal nuclei results inwards a to a greater extent than stable nucleus, in addition to the extra unloosen energy is liberated. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 pocket-sized atomic (fission) bomb is used to commencement the fusion reactions inwards the hydrogen in addition to nitrogen bombs.

Atomic Bomb.

The atom bomb is a device which releases unloosen energy due to fission reaction occurring inwards it. The unloosen energy is most i 1000000 times greater than an equal weight of chemic high explosive every bit TNT.

The atomic bomb contains ii subcritical masses of a fissionable isotope every bit plutonium - 239. These are propelled towards each other in addition to their collision results inwards a nuclear explosion.

The atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima on 6 august 1945, uranium - 235 in addition to that dropped on Nagasaki on ix August, used plutonium - 239.

Hydrogen Bomb.

The hydrogen bomb (or fusion bomb) is a nuclear weapon which releases unloosen energy due to a fusion reaction. There are ii types of the hydrogen bomb.

1. The tritium bomb, and
2. The Deuterium bomb.

The tritium bomb uses the fusion of tritium in addition to deuterium.

The deuterium bomb uses deuterium.

The fusion is started amongst a fission bomb containing Uranium - 235 or plutonium -239.

Critical Signal | Constants, Determination, Critical Phenomena |

Critical Point.

The bend representing the variation of book in addition to pressure level at constant temperature is called isotherm.

A gas tin hold out liquified yesteryear increasing pressure level in addition to decreasing temperature. At a temperature in addition to pressure, a gas changes to vapor. It is called the critical state of the gas. The indicate representing this solid soil inwards an isotherm is called critical point, e.g., F is a critical indicate inwards the isotherm CO2 at 31 °C.

Experimental Determination of Critical Constants.

Critical temperature in addition to pressure level tin hold out measured alongside Cagniard's apparatus. It is a U-shaped drinking glass subway scheme alongside a bulb at the lower end. The liquid is contained inwards the bulb in addition to the residuum of the apparatus is filled alongside mercury in addition to the upper in addition to of the bulb is sealed leaving a fiddling air inwards it. The temperature of the bulb is raised gradually. H5N1 indicate reaches when the liquid disappears in addition to a homogeneous mixture of vapors in addition to air is left inwards it. On cooling this mixture, a mist outset forms in addition to the liquid look quickly.

The hateful of the temperature of the disappearance in addition to reappearance of the liquid inwards the bulb is critical temperature. The pressure level read on the manometer is "critical pressure".

Determination of Critical Volume.

Amagat devised a method to decide the critical volume. It consists of mensuration the densities of liquid in addition to its vapors near the critical point. These ii densities are plotted against the temperature. When extended, these curves see at the critical temperature, because at this temperature the densities of liquid in addition to vapor croak equal. The hateful values of densities of liquid in addition to vapor are plotted in addition to nosotros gat CD which passed through C, the critical temperature. The intersection of CD in addition to ABC at C gives the critical density. From this, the critical book tin hold out calculated.

Critical Phenomena in addition to Critical State.

The essential atmospheric condition for the liquefaction of gas were discovered yesteryear T. Andrew. He made the conclusion alongside CO2 at diverse temperatures.

1. At 50 °C, CO2 obeys gas law, i.e., Boyle's Law.
2. At 31.1 °C, the Isotherm shows a interruption at F in addition to a decrease inwards book for a pocket-size modify pressure.
3. At 21 °C, the bend remains horizontal at YZ in addition to the gas changes to liquid at Y at the same pressure level although the book change.

At indicate F, at that topographic point exists an equilibrium betwixt the gas in addition to liquid, in addition to it exists inwards a vapor state. "The solid soil of a gas when it is introduce inwards vapor solid soil at definite temperature in addition to pressure level is called the critical state".

The indicate F is called a critical indicate in addition to the isotherm passing through it is called critical isotherm.

Lewis Theory | Chemic Bonding Of Lewis Theory |

Lewis Theory | Chemical bonding of Lewis Theory |.

In 1916 W. Kossel together with G.N. Lewis set forrad the electronic theory of chemic bonding. It was suggested that inwards a chemic reaction, the atom of an chemical ingredient adjusts their electronic configuration to that of the nearest noble gas. The atoms larn 2 electrons, duplet configuration or 8 electron octet structure. For example, H, Li, together with Be acquire ns² and all other atoms tend to attain ns² np⁶ configuration. On the footing of this octet theory, the chemic bonds stimulate got been divided into the next iii types:

1. Ionic or Electrovalent Bond.
2. Covalent Bond.
3. Co-ordinate bond.

Ionic Bond.

The bond formed yesteryear the consummate transference of ane or to a greater extent than electrons from ane atom to or together with thus other atom is called the ionic or electrovalent bond. This is formed betwixt the elements of depression ionization potential values (i.e., elements of grouping I-A together with II-A) together with the elements amongst a high electron affinity values such every bit the chemical ingredient of Group Vi together with Vii-A.

Examples.

NaCl:

• Sodium loses ane electron to achieve the electronic configuration of neon,1s², 2s², 2p⁶.
  
• Chlorine gains ane electron to larn the electronic configuration of argon ( 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 2p⁶)
  
• The oppositely charged ions formed inwards this agency are held together yesteryear the electrostatic forcefulness of attraction.
  

CaCl2:

• Calcium loses two-electron to form Ca²⁺ ions together with acquires electronic configuration of argon ( 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶)
  
• These 2 electrons are taken upwards yesteryear 2 chlorine atoms to form  ‎Cl⁻ ‎ions.
  
• Due to the electrostatic forcefulness of attraction, these ions pack themselves inwards a crystal lattice.
  

Covalent Bond.

"A bond formed yesteryear the usual sharing of electrons betwixt 2 atoms is called Covalent Bond". The atoms amongst aught or depression electronegativity differences commonly shape covalent bonds.

Examples:

Formation of H2:

• Two hydrogen atoms portion their electrons together with achieve locomote a configuration of helium, (1s²)
  

H2O Molecule:

• Two hydrogen atoms achieve the configuration of Helium (1s²) together with oxygen acquires Neon configuration (1s² 2s² 2p⁶), inwards the formation of H2O.
  
• Similarly, inwards the formation of NH3. each atom tends to larn element of group 0 configuration
  

Co-ordinate covalent Bond.

"A covalent bond inwards which both inwards electrons are donated yesteryear ane of the atoms is called Co-ordinate covalent bond. The atom which donates the electron couplet is called the donor atom together with the atom which accepts than for bond formation is called the acceptor. This bond is represented yesteryear an arrow that runs from donor to acceptor atom.

Examples:

Formation of NH+4 : 

• Lone couplet electron of nitrogen is donated to H⁺ to shape Co-ordinate covalent bond.
  

Formation of H3O+:

• Lone couplet of electron on oxygen forms a co-ordinate covalent bond with H⁺.