Formic Acid : Preparation, Properties, Uses

Formic Acid.

Formic acid derives its cite from the fact that it was kickoff obtained past times distillation of ants (Latin, Formica =ant):

Preparation. Formic acid may hold upward obtained every bit follows:

(1) From Methanol. By the oxidation of methanol amongst acidified sodium dichromate solution.

(2) From Oxalic Acid. Formic acid is prepared inwards the laboratory past times heating oxalic acid amongst glycerol catalyst at 110°C.

Laboratory Method.

Anhydrous glycerol (50 ml) as well as powdered oxalic acid (40 g) are placed inwards a flask as well as the apparatus laid upward every bit shown inwards Fig. 1.1 The flask is heated at 1 C till the development of carbon dioxide (marked past times effervescence) ceases. The reaction flask is so cooled as well as a fresh lot of oxalic acid (40 g) is added. The mixture is in ane trial again heated at 110°C when an aqueous solution of formic acid collects inwards the receiver.

The aqueous formic acid is neutralised amongst Pb carbonate. The solution of Pb formate therefore produced is filtered as well as concentrated. The crystals of Pb formate are so charged inwards the inner underground of a water-condenser as well as the apparatus laid upward every bit shown inwards Fig. 1.2. Hydrogen sulphide is allowed to transcend through the condenser spell steam is passed through its outer jacket. The anhydrous formic acid collecting inwards the receiver flask is freed from dissolved hydrogen sulphide past times distilling over fresh Pb formate.

Anhydrous formic acid may likewise hold upward made inwards the laboratory past times distilling a mixture of sodium formate as well as sodium hydrogen sulphate.

(3) From Carbon Monoxide. Formic acid is prepared industrially past times beating carbon monoxide.

with sodium hydroxide at 150°C as well as nether the pressure level of 8 atmospheres.

The complimentary acid is liberated from its sodium tabular array salt past times reaction amongst sulphuric acid.

Physical properties.

Formic acid is a colourless, abrupt smelling, irritating liquid, bp 100.8°C. It is miscible amongst water, ethanol, as well as there. It is really corrosive as well as causes bumps as well as blisters on the skin.

Chemical Properties.

Formic acid is unique because it contains both an aldehyde grouping as well as a carboxyl group.

Uses. 

Formic acid is used :

1. In stuff dyeing as well as finishing.
2. As a coagulating agent for security latex.
3. In leather tanning.
4. In the preservation of fruits.
5. As an antiseptic.
6. In the handling of gout.
7. In the laboratory training of carbon monoxide.

Lactic Acid : Preparation, Properties, Reaction As Well As Uses

Lactic Acid.

Lactic acid is the top dog component subdivision of milk that has gone sour in addition to thence its advert (L. Lactis=milk).

Preparation. (1) By the hydrolysis of acetaldehyde cyanohydrin.

From Molasses. (2) Lactic acid is manufactured past times fermentation of molasses (or milk whey containing lactose) past times the microorganism Bacillus acidi lactiti (BAL).

A dilute solution of molasses (or whey) is treated alongside BAL (sour milk). The fermentation is carried at 35-40°C inwards the presence of CaCO₃, As the lactic acid is produced, it reacts alongside CaCO₃, to cast calcium lactate. The calcium lactate is filtered off in addition to decomposed alongside calculated quantity of dilute H₂SO₄. The insoluble Calcium sulphate is removed in addition to the lactic acid gear upwards gratis inwards the solution is recovered past times distillation inwards vacuo. The production is D-lactic acid.

Physical Properties.

Lactic acid is a colourless, crystalline solid, mp 53°C, in addition to has a sour taste. The acid obtained from molasses is D-isomer. The synthetic production is racemic lactic acid, mp 18°C, specific rotation [α] = +3.82, Lactic acid is soluble inwards water, alcohol, in addition to ether.

Chemical Properties.

Lactic acid molecule contains a secondary alcohol grouping (>CHOH) in addition to a carboxyl grouping (COOH), in addition to gives reactions of both.

Reaction Involving COOH Group.

(1) Formtion of salt. It reacts alongside alkalis to cast salts.

Reaction Involving OH Group.

(2) Reaction alongside CH₃COCl. The alcoholic OH grouping is acetylated on reaction alongside acetyl chloride inwards the presence of a base of operations (pyridine).

(3) Reduction. When heated alongside Hl, it is reduced to propionic acid.

(4) Oxidation. On oxidation alongside Fenton's reagent (H₂O₂/Fe³⁺) it is converted to pyruvic acid. With KMnO₄ it yields acetic acid.

Reaction Involving Both OH And COOH.

(5) Reaction alongside PCl5. Both the OH in addition to COOH groups are attacked past times phosphorus pentachloride to cast lactyl chloride.

(6). Action of Heat. When heated alone, it forms an intermolecular cyclic diester called a Lactide.

(7) Reaction With H₂SO4. When heated alongside dilute sulphuric acid at 130°C, lactic acid is decomposed to yield acetaldehyde in addition to formic acid.

With concentrated H₂SO₄, formic acid is farther decomposed to CO in addition to H₂O. (test)

Uses.

Lactic acid is used.

1. in dairy products.
2. as acidulant inwards beverages in addition to candies.
3. for deliming of hides.
4. as a mordant.
5. Ethyl in addition to butyl lactates are used every bit plasticisers.
6. Calcium in addition to Fe lactates are used inwards medicine. 

Solvent Extraction Questions In Addition To Answers

solvent extraction QnA.

The QnA inward your hand solvent extraction questions as well as answers primarily meant for graduate as well as postgraduate students of Chemistry alongside the intention that they could demo ameliorate functioning during diverse competitive examinations as well as interviews held for Civil as well as Military Services. At the same fourth dimension it is as useful for those who wishing to endure good informed inward diverse disciplines of chemistry.

What is the regulation of solvent extraction?

Amongst the diverse methods of separation, solvent extraction besides called as liquid-liquid extraction is considered to endure nigh versatile as well as pop method of separation. It is based on the regulation that a solute tin distribute itself inward a sure enough ratio betwixt 2 immiscible or partially miscible solvents such as benzene, H2O or chloroform.

Why solvent extraction is considered as a useful separation technique?

The primary argue for its usefulness is that separations tin endure carried out on macro-level as good as on micro-level. Moreover, 1 does non quest whatever sophisticated apparatus or instrumentation except a separatory funnel.

What are the applications of solvent extraction?

This technique tin endure used for the exercise of preparation. purification, enrichment, separation as well as analysis on all scales of working.It is an elegant. elementary as well as rapid technique.

What is Nerst distribution law?

When a solute is shaken alongside 2 immiscible solvents 1 as well as 2, the solute distributes itself betwixt these 2 liquids as well as a dynamic equilibrium is established:

Where A1, as well as A2, are the concentrations of the solute H5N1 inward solvent 1 as well as 2 respectively. If the solute exists inward the same ionic or molecular shape inward both the solvents. Nerst police describe states that

Where KD, is a constant at a item temperature known as distribution or sectionalisation constant.

What are the limitations of the distribution law?

1.   The 2 solvents should endure immiscible.

2.   The solutions should endure dilute.

3.   Molecular terra firma of the solute should endure same inward beth the phases.

Write the formula if solute undergoes association inward 1 of the phases?

When a solute undergoes association inward 1 of the phases, so the distribution police describe is written as

What is distribution ratio (D)?

In the practical applications of solvent extraction nosotros are non interested whether the solute, inward whatever of the solvent, is inward the association or dissociated form, simply our primary involvement is to know the fraction of total solute inward 1 or the other solvent. Hence the term distribution ratio (D) or extraction coefficient (F) is used which is given by.

Where (CA)1 = total concentration of H5N1 inward solvent 1.

           (CA)2 = total concentration of H5N1 inward solvent 2

Mention 1 of import analytical application of solvent extraction?

The nigh of import type of analytical application of solvent extraction involves metallic chelates which are readily soluble inward organic solvents simply entirely sparingly soluble inward water. For example, past times adding dimethylglyoxime to an aqueous solution of Ni(11) at pH betwixt 5-12, nickel dimethylglyoxime is quantitatively precipitated which tin endure extracted alongside chloroform. The cherry solution inward chloroform so obtained is examined photometrically as well as the amount of Ni acquaint inward the sample solution tin endure determined.

Briefly speak over diverse techniques of extraction?

The 2 liquids may endure brought inward contact alongside 1 around other discretely or continuously, giving ascent to 3 mutual ways of carrying out an extraction. These are:

Batch Extraction. 

In batch extraction, a liquid (usually H2O) containing the dissolved solute sample is shaken alongside around other liquid (usually organic) inward a shut container until equilibrium has been established. The 2 immiscible phases are allowed to settle as well as separated mechanically. When the value of D for the desired compound is greater that 10 as well as considerably dissimilar from other components of the mixture, a batch extraction is preferred.

Continuous Extraction. 

The continuous extraction is used when the distribution ratio is relatively pocket-size (D<1), so that large number of batch extractions would commonly endure necessary to affect. quantitative separation. this technique, the extracting liquid (lighter of heavier) is passed continuously through or over the stationary liquid containing the solute. The 2 phases are the separated physically as well as 1 containing unextracted desired solute is over again treated for continuous extraction.

Counter Current Extraction. 

In such type of extraction, the solvent as well as the liquid which is existence extracted motion continuously

in contrary directions as well as thence the solute distributes inward 2 oppositely moving phases. When the extraction is complete, the 2 phases are separated physically. Equilibrium is non attained inward this technique.

Organic Chemical Scientific Discipline Quiz Multiple Pick Questions Answers

Multiple Choice Questions Answers.

Each year, to a greater extent than than a 1000000 students pass iii grueling hours taking the Entrance Tests that applied scientific discipline colleges as well as universities operate to tending them create upwards one's hear which students to admit. More as well as to a greater extent than students as well as teachers convey learn frustrated because they experience that these tests are non solely fair. Some critics combat that these tests produce non truly try truthful knowledge. Others combat most whether these tests are predictive of futurity success or only a guess of past times achievement. The fact remains that these entrance tests are there! To produce well, you lot postulate to know both the ins as well as outs of these tests as well as the (material they cover. Most of these entrance exams convey multiple selection questions answers. Many BSc exams straight off too convey multiple-choice questions.

13 Answers To Your Questions Most Vitamins

Vitamins.

This organic chemical compound of vitamins is a real pop i as well as it tin live on hard to weed out the truths from the myths. Here are answers to the thirteen most ofttimes asked questions to tending you lot larn unopen to perspective.

What are vitamins?

Vitamins are organic compounds that human tissues cannot synthesize merely that are required for normal increase as well as evolution as well as must live on included inwards diet.

Write downwardly unopen to of import sources of vitamins for a human body?

Vitamins are supplied both yesteryear brute as well as constitute sources. Some of the of import sources are: vegetables, egg yolk, milk, fish, oils, whole-grain cereals, yeast, liver, wheat, grams, meat as well as fruits.

What are master copy classes of vitamins?

Vitamins are classified into ii master copy classes.

1. Water-soluble e.g., biotin, niacin, vitamin B & C.
2. Fat-soluble These include vitamins A, D, E as well as K.

Define co-enzymes?

Vitamins as well as their derivatives often serve equally cofactors for enzymes. Vitamin cofactors are called equally co-enzymes.

Does antibiotic therapy touching on vitamins?

It causes deficiency of vitamins.

Write the lift of co-factors required for role of vitamin Niacin as well as Riboflavin?

Niacin requires Nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide as well as its phosphate i.e., NAD as well as NADP equally cofactors.

Riboflavin needs flavin mononucleotide & flavin dinucleotide (FMN & FDN) equally co-factors.

What is ascorbic acid?

 It is cofactor of vitamin C.

What are co-enzymes forms of vitamin A, thiamin, biotin as well as folic acids?

TPP, Biocyatin, THF as well as retinal are coenzyme forms of thiamin. biotin, folic acid & vitamin H5N1 respectively.

What are diseases caused yesteryear deficiency of Vitamin D. E as well as K respectively?

Vitamin D = Poor muscular development, Rickets.

Vitamin E = Anemia, Male sterlity Malfunction of nervous system.

Vitamin K = Slow blood clotting

Where biosynthesis of biotin takes place?

It takes house inwards intestine yesteryear intestinal microorganism.

Which of the fat-soluble vitamin is synthesized yesteryear human tissue?

Vitamin D.

What are of import functions performed yesteryear vitamin C?

As: It is a protective agent as well as acts equally antioxidant. It tending inwards biosynthesis of collagen as well as hormones.

What are of import sources of nicotinic acid?

Sources of nicotinic acid include yeast, liver, legumes as well as meals.

P Block Elements Questions In Addition To Answers

p block elements.

The article inward your hand p block elements questions as well as answers primarily meant for graduate as well as postgraduate students of Chemistry alongside the intention that they could present improve surgery during diverse competitive examinations as well as interviews held for Civil as well as Military Services. At the same fourth dimension it is as useful for those who wish to live on good informed inward diverse disciplines of chemistry.

Q1. What are P-block elements?

Elements inward which P-orbitals are inward the procedure of filling inward companionship to accomplish the inert gas configuration are called P block elements. The elements accept completely filled ns orbitals as well as accept np^1-6 electronic configuration.

Q2. Which periodic groups belong to this block?

Groups IIIA, IVA. VA, VIA, VIIA as well as null grouping belong to this block.

Q3. What is the nature of P-block elements?

Whereas s, d as well as f block elements are almost all metals, the P- block elements include metals non-metals, metalloids as well as inert gases.

Q4. How does electro negativity values vary inward P-block elements?

The electro negativity values of P-block elements decreases downward the grouping as well as increases inward a period.

Q5.  Discuss the electro positive grapheme of P-block elements?

The electro positive grapheme of P-block elements decreases on moving inward a period, because ionization unloosen energy increases from left to correct inward a menstruum as well as increases downward the grouping due to decrease inward ionization energy.

Q6. Why arrive at P-block elements non give feature coloring inward the flame?

The argue is that the excitation unloosen energy given out past times the electrons, when they come upward dorsum to dry soil state, does non look inward the visible part of the spectrum.

Q7. What is the nature of chemic bonding inward P-block elements?

Usually covalent bonding is acquaint inward P-block elements.

Q8. What is the nature of oxides formed past times P-block elements?

We know that P-block elements include metals. metalloids as well as non-metals. The metal elements of P-block give basic oxides (Bi₂ O₃), metalloids give amphoteric oxides (As₂. O₃ ) as well as non-metallic elements give acidic oxides (CO_2, SO₃).

Q9. Write the names of grouping IIIA elements.

Group IIIA of the periodic tabular array consists of v elements which Are: Born (B), Aluminium (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium (In) as well as Thallium (TI).

Q10. What is the valence-shell electronic configuration of grouping IIIA?

The valence-shell electronic configuration of grouping IIIA is ns²p¹.

Q11. Why boron usually forms covalent compounds?

Since boron atom has pocket-sized sire as well as high ionization energy, it does non lose all of its valence electrons as well as thus does non give B⁺ ion. It is for this argue that boron atom combines alongside other elements through covalent bonds, i.e., boron atom mainly gives covalent compounds.

Q12. Discuss the metal grapheme of boron group.

All the members of this grouping are metals except boron which is semi-metal.

Q12. Why boron shows diagonal human relationship alongside silicon?

Some mutual proportion showing the similarities betwixt B as well as Si are given below:

1. Both the elements tin john live on prepared past times reducing their oxides.
2. Chemically, both the elements are typical non-metal as well as are bad Conductors of oestrus as well as electricity.
3. Both the element  are unremarkably inert at room temperature.
4. Boron as well as silicon combine alongside O₂ at elevated temperature to shape stable oxides, viz. B₂O₃ as well as SiO₂.

Q13. How does boron differ from silicon?

The next points present dissimilarities betwixt boron as well as silicon.

1. Boron has 3 electrons inward its valence vanquish spell silicon has 4 electrons.
2. Boron combines alongside N₂. to give BN, spell silicon does non combine alongside N₂.
3. Boron is tri-covalent inward its compounds, spell silicon is tetra covalent inward its compounds.
4. Boron is oxidized past times hot cone HNO₃ or hot cone H₂SO₄ to shape H₃BO_3,while silicon is solely attacked past times HF. 

Q14. Give simply about uses of boric acid.

Boric acid (H₃ BO₃), it  is used

1. In the manufacture of pottery  glazes, drinking glass as well as enamels.
2. In medicine as an antiseptic as well as as an optic lotion.
3. As preservative inward nutrient industry, and
4. In the manufacture of borax as well as pigments.

Q15. Give simply about uses of borax.

Borax or sodium tetraborate (Na₂ B₄ O₇ O1OH₂O) is a sodium common salt of tetra boric acid (H₂ B₄ O₇). It is used:

1. In borax bead essay for the detection of basic radicals.
2. In the manufacture of enamels as well as glazes for pottery
3. In making optical drinking glass as well as boro-silicate glass-ware.
4. In the manufacture of washing powders as well as soaps.

Q16. Write the names of grouping IVA elements.

Group IVA of the periodic tabular array consists of v elements viz. Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn) as well as Lead (Pb). Carbon is an essential gene of all organic matter, spell silicon is the principal gene of inorganic matter.

Q17. What is the valence vanquish electronic configuration of grouping IVA elements?

The valence vanquish electronic configuration of grouping IVA elements is ns’ p’.

Q18. How does carbon occur inward nature?

Carbon is the solely chemical element of this grouping which occurs inward the gratis state as diamond, graphite as well as coal.In the combined state, it occurs as hydrocarbons, carbohydrates as well as carbon dioxide inward the atmosphere.

Q19. How does atomic number 82 occur?

Lead occurs inward mineral galena, PbS.

Q20. Discuss the metal as well as non-metallic grapheme of grouping IVA elements.

The commencement 2 elements, viz. C as well as Si are distinctly non-metals; the 3rd chemical element vs;  Ge is partly a metal as well as partly a non-metal (i.e., metalloid), spell the terminal 2 elements viz; Sn as well as Pb are distinctly metals.

Q21. What is catenation or self-linkage?

All the elements of grouping IVA accept a style to link alongside each other as well as thus forms long chains of identical atoms. This type of linking of identical atom alongside each other is called catenation or self-linkage.

Q22. Give simply about uses of nitric acid.

It is used:

1. in the manufacture of nitrate which are of import chemicals of commerce. Basie calcium nitrate is used us fertilizer. Silver nitrate is used inward photography as well as sodium nitrate inward the manufacture of gunpowder as well as fireworks.
2. in the manufacture of explosives similar nitroglycerine, dynamite, trinitrotoluene, picric acid etc.
3. in the manufacture of artificial silk, dyes as well as perfumes.
4. in the manufacture of H₂ SO₄.
5. in the grooming of aqua regia.

Q23. What are nitrides as well as azides?

The binary compounds of nitrogen alongside electro positive elements or alongside the elements which are less electronegative than nitrogen are called nitrides. While the salts of hydrazoic acid are called azides. Thus, Na₃N Ag₃N etc. are the examples of nitrides, spell NaN₃ AgN₃, etc are the examples of azides.

Q24. Why does nitrogen differ from the other members of this group.

This is because of the next inherent properties of nitrogen: (a) pocket-sized size (b) higher electronegativity, as well as (c) non-availability of d-orbitals. The principal points of departure are:

1. Nitrogen is a gas spell other elements are solids.
2. Nitrogen atom cannot expand its octet, spell the other members of this grouping tin john arrive at so.
3. Nitrogen shows a large pose out of oxidation states, spell the other elements arrive at non present such a multifariousness of oxidation states.
4. Nitrogen is chemically inert due to high dissociation unloosen energy of due north ≡ N bond. However, other elements of the grouping are quite reactive.

Q25. What are the natural methods of nitrogen fixation?

In nature nitrogen is fixed past times the next methods.

By lightning discharges.

The nitrogen as well as oxygen acquaint inward air combine together to shape nitric oxide nether the influence of lightning discharges. Nitric oxide is oxidized past times excess of oxygen acquaint inward the atmosphere to shape nitrogen peroxide which farther combines alongside H2O to shape nitric acid.

By symbiotic bacteria.

The atmospheric nitrogen is beingness constantly transferred to the soil through the means of for certain bacteria called symbiotic bacteria. These grow inward pocket-sized nodules inward roots of plants belonging to the household unit of measurement Leguminaceae (Pea, gram etc.).

Q26. Why nitrous oxide is called laughing gas?

When this oxide is inhaled inward pocket-sized quantities, it produces hysterical laughter as well as for this argue this oxide is called laughing gas.

Q27. What is microcosmic salt?

Sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate [Na (NH₄ ) HPO₄, 4H₂ O] is called microcosmic common salt since it is acquaint inward the urine of the “microcosm” i.e., man.

Q28. What is phossy jaws?

White phosphorus has garlic odor as well as highly poisonous. It is used inward agree factories. Workers inward agree factories endure from a illness called phossy jaws inward which bones of jaw as well as teeth decay. This illness is due to white phosphorus

Q29. What is transition temperature?

It is the temperature at which i allotropic shape of a heart as well as person changes into other. It has a fixed value for each span of allotropes.

Q30. What arrive at y'all know nearly diamond?

Diamond is the hardest heart as well as person known. Among diverse forms of carbon, diamond is the purest as well as densest. It has the highest refractive index, 2. 45. This holding is responsible for its value as gems.

Q31. What arrive at y'all know nearly Koh-i-Noor?

Koh-i-Noor (mountain of light) is a famous diamond of large size which had the master weight of 186 carats (1 gram = 5 carats) but had to live on out downward to 106 carats subsequently on.

Proteins (Questions In Addition To Answers)

Proteins questions in addition to answers.

The article inwards your hand Questions in addition to answers most proteins primarily meant for graduate in addition to postgraduate students of Chemistry amongst the intention that they could demonstrate amend surgery during diverse competitive examinations in addition to interviews held for Civil in addition to Military Services. At the same fourth dimension it is every bit useful for those who wish to last good informed inwards diverse disciplines of chemistry.

Q1. What are proteins?

Proteins are complex nitrogenous compounds of high molecular weight formed inwards nature yesteryear condensation of large publish of amino acids through peptide bonds.

Q2. How peptide bond is formed?

The peptide bond is established yesteryear condensation of amino grouping in addition to carboxylic acid grouping amongst elimination of a H2O molecule i.e.,

Q3. What is nature of peptide bond?

There are polar bonds.

Q4. What is amount publish of amino acids found?

Twenty

Q5. What are major functions of proteins?

1. They are primal components of all enzymes in addition to some of hormones.
2. They are structural units of skin, os & cytoskeleton.
3. The dietry proteins are of import unloose energy sources of body.
4. Immune defence strength organisation is composed of proteins.

Q6. What is composition of amino acids?

Amino Acids are composed of amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom in addition to a distinctive side chain, all bonded to carbon atom.

Q7. What is acid hydrolysis production of protein?

Amino acids are to a greater extent than oft than non obtained yesteryear hydrolysis of proteins.

Q8. On what factors the type of poly peptide depends?

The type of poly peptide depends upon the number, type & sequence of amino acids involved inwards its structure.

Q9. Write downward the type of proteins on the solid soil of structure?

Proteins are found inwards 3 types of structure.

1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
4. Quaternery

Q10. Give distinguishing features of each type of structure?

In principal structure, at that spot is a linear sequence of amino acids. Secondary construction contains poly peptide resulting from hydrogen bond interaction b/w amino acids which are really to a greater extent than or less each other. Tertiary construction refers to polypeptide chains forming complex later coiling in addition to folding. Quaternary construction defines the construction resulting from interactions betwixt split upward polypeptides units having to a greater extent than than ane subunits.

Q11. What are major classes of proteins on the solid soil of functions?

1. Structural proteins (Collagen)
2. Storage proteins (Ferritin)
3. Contractile proteins (Myosin)
4. Allyl Enzymes
5. Protective proteins (Fibrinogen)
6. Transport proteins (Haemoglobin)
7. Growth hormones
8. Toxins.

Q.12 What are derived proteins?

These are degradation products of elementary & conjugated proteins e.g., peptides, peptones etc.

Q13. Write downward at to the lowest degree 2 examples of oxygen-transporting proteins.

1. Myoglobin
2. Haemoglobin

Q14. What are blood proteins?

These are introduce inwards blood plasma. These include sorum, albumin. glyco proteins etc.

Q.15. How proteins may last separated?

Proteins may last separated yesteryear a publish of agency e.g., dialysis, ultracentrifugation, HPLC, electrophoresis in addition to gel filteration etc.